Merchant of Venice Essay Shylock - Antagonist or Victim

The Merchant of Venice: Shylock - Antagonist or Victim? In The Merchant of Venice, by William Shakespeare, there appears Shylock - a Jew. As the play unfolds Shylock is seen to be the villain and is portrayed as being cold, unbending, and evil. Shylock can easily be assumed to be the antagonist in this play or, after careful research and study, he can also be viewed as persecuted individual who resorts to revenge as a last resort after he has been pushed too far. To fully understand the character of Shylock we must first look at Elizabeathen attitudes towards Jews. In the sixteenth century Jews were rarely if ever seen in England. In the Middle Ages Jews had fled to England to escape persecution in†¦show more content†¦Shylock tells the audience he hopes to exact revenge on Antonio both for his own humiliation and for the persecution that the Jews have long suffered at the hands of the Christians. I hate him for he is a Christian;. . . If I can catch him once upon the hip, I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him. He hates our sacred nation . . . Curs‚d be my tribe if I forgive him (I,iii,40-49) Shylock then tells Antonio that he wants to be friends with him and will conclude the bond for a pound of flesh as a merry sport. In the second act, however, he still seems to bear a deep grudge against the Christians, for he tells Jessica that he is going in hate and not in friendship to dine with them. But yet Ill go in hat e to feed upon the prodigal Christian. . . .I am right loath to go. (II,v,14-16) After Jessicas elopment, Shylock suspects Bassanio and Antonio of abetting her escape, and this suspicion increases Shylocks animosity toward Antonio. We learn later in the play that Antonio has personally rescued a number of debtors from Shylocks bonds when Antonio says I oft delievered from his forfeitures; Many that have made moan to me. (III,iii,23-24) We also discover that Shylock cannot or will not explain his reasons for demanding Antonios flesh. But say it is my humor, is all the reason he is able to show.Show MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice2269 Words   |  10 PagesSamantha Hansen ENG 314 Brother Brugger 12.15.14 The Question of Shylock It is hard to read The Merchant of Venice without finding at least one character to sympathize with. The unforgettable villain Shylock as well as Portia, Shakespeare’s first and one of his most famous heroines are arguably some of this plays most beloved characters. But, is Shylock really the villain? Or is he a victim of circumstance? Shylock’s insistence for a pound of flesh has made him one of literatures most memorableRead MoreEssay on Shylock in William Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice1877 Words   |  8 PagesShylock in William Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice The Merchant of Venice, a tragic- comedy written in the late 16th century by the greatest known English author, William Shakespeare. This is a tale set in the heart of Venice, amongst the Venetian Christians and Jews. The history of the Jews is marked by terrible hardship and atrocities; Jewish people kept up their customs and religion formed tight knit communities and became known for their intelligent hard work

Case Study Jasper, Summer And Dak - 1502 Words

Jasper, Summer and Dak are a group of three young and highly talented creatives who make up all three members of The Trio. By putting their innovative minds together, the group managed to create a unique and intricately designed dress made from vinyl that has succeeded to be the next big thing in the highly lucrative market of adolescent and young adult consumers. As the manager of The Trio, it is my duty to protect the intellectual property of the group. Such a responsibility will involve researching into the potential solutions of copyright laws and creative common licences, within the field of fashion. My research will not only be focused in relevance to New Zealand but will also extend to overseas markets as The Trios creative product is set to be released worldwide. With my collected information, I will then recommend a justified course of action that I believe would be best for the group to take in regards to their intellectual property. Copyright is a property right that covers various works such as films, broadcasts, literary works, artistic works, sound recordings and more. Fashion comes under the category of artistic works. However, copyright within this field is very limited. Blakley (2010) explains that this is because apparel is said to be too utilitarian to qualify for copyright protection. The fashion industry itself also poses difficulties for copyright protection, which Batty (2009) explains through three main points. Firstly, there are certain fundamentalsShow MoreRelated`` Keeping Up With The World : A New Worldwide Phenomenon1844 Words   |  8 PagesAuckland University of Technology Alumni Jasper, Summer and Dak more commonly referred to as The Trio have created a new worldwide phenomenon. ‘Keeping up with the World’ is a television series that combines universal messages of support for teens and young adults with catchy musical numbers. The Trio will each play equal roles in the creati on of this television production where all three will be making creative and technical decisions. The Trio have already successfully secured funding through

Construction Law Matthews v AusNet Electricity

Questions: 1.What is a class action and what relevance do class actions have in engineers planning to avoid claims and Identify the person or groups of people referred to in the case le that could have a claim damages at law against? 2.What is the basis of attributing any liability for the damage arising from the fire? 3.In the case where there is a legal liability what are the limits imposed and recovery in respect of the various classes of persons referred to above to whom the damage was caused ? 4.Having regard to the problems experienced what procedures would you put into place to limit exposure to claim of negligence. Refer to the principles of law as applied in the case and use the examples mentioned in the cases? Answers: 1. A class action, representative action or a class suit is amongst one of types of lawsuits where one side of the parties involves a group of individuals or people, who are collectively represented by a member belonging to that group (Anderson and Trask, 2012). In an archetypal class action, the defendant or a number of defendants, are sued by the plaintiff on behalf of a class or group of absent parties. This is different from a traditional law suit as where one party is sued by the other party, in order to correct the wrong done, and the parties are also required to be present in the court (Greer, 2010). Even though there are varied standards depending upon the nations and the states, the class actions are common mostly where the claims involve a group of people, who have been harmed by the common defendant in a similar manner (Eisenberg, 2016). Instead of each and every single party bringing a claim against the defendant through an individual lawsuit, the assertion made under class action allows the members of such class to be resolved through a single proceeding, whether they are aware of the fact that they have been injured or not (Grave, Adams and Betts, 2012). The best manner of avoiding a collective action is by reviewing the relationship between the employer and the workers in a periodical and thorough manner (McDermott Will Emery, 2007). The class action can prove to be helpful for the engineers who plan on avoiding the claims made. As the class action is brought by a group of individuals, the engineers can prove the claims of one of such groups wrong, to try to bring an end to the class action as a whole. Once the claim of a member of group of class action can be established to have been made wrongly, or is proved as fault or false, the class action can be closed a bit easily. The other manner in which it can prove helpful is that instead of paying the compensation for the same issue in tens of different cases, the claim is made at a unified place, where the duplicative litigations can be avoided (Sherman, 2017). The class actions which had been raised in the past or the ones which have been successful against the other companies can be taken as guidance in dealing with the present class action, in addition to avoiding the class actions, which can be raised in the future (Johnson, 2013). In the given case study, a class action was initiated against Electricity Services Pty Ltd, which was formerly known as the SPI Electricity Pty Ltd, and has been referred to as SPI in the following parts; the maintenance contractor who was in charge of carrying out a intervallic examination of the power line and has been referred to as UAM in the following parts; and the various other bodies of the State of Victoria, who had the responsibility of managing the forest land, the policing of emergencies and the fighting of fires and has been referred to as the State parties in the following parts (Australasian Legal Information Institute, 2014). In this case, there are a number of individuals who could claim damages as per the law, against the defendants mentioned above. These include the individuals who were injured due to the fire, the ones who lost their lives, the people who had to lose their property to the fire, the people who lost their livelihood earnings and the source of earning due to this incident, and by all such individuals who were dependent upon the aforementioned individuals (Jade, 2014). The proceedings were initiated with the group being led by Leo Keane but later on Carol Ann Matthews substituted her as the plaintiff (Milovanovic, 2011). The plaintiff made the claims on behalf of the individuals summarized in the list, and these included the individuals: Who made a claim for their personal injury For the death of another person due to fire, as per Wrongs Act 1958s part 3. Claims made by people who suffered a damage or property loss Economic losses suffering individuals, which was not consequent upon the damaged caused to the property of such individual or for the injury caused to them (State Government of Victoria, 2014). 2. Even though the settlement on this case was attained, but none of the parties admitted any liability (Farnsworth, 2016). Yet, there is a strong base for liability in this case. The base for attributing liability for the damages caused as a result of the fire in the Black Saturday bushfires, predominantly relate to the tort of negligence and the negligent pure economic loss. A civil wrong done is considered as a tort and negligence is one of the tort laws in Australia. Negligence stems from the failure of the individuals fulfillment of duty of care, which was owed by such an individual to some other person and this failure causes some injury or loss to such other person (Kelly, Hammer and Hendy, 2014). In other words, when a duty is owed by a person to another, and there is a failure in performance of this duty, which results in a harm to the individual to whom the duty of care was owed, it is a case of negligence (Abbott, Pendlebury and Wardman, 2007). The raison d'tre of negligence is to fix the responsibility on the individuals, while performance of certain task, which could result in an injury, harm, loss or the threat of same over the other individual (Turner, 2013). Though, for negligence, the other person has to be in the periphery of such an individual. In other words, there has to be a proximity or direct causation amid the breach of duty and the resulting harm (Statsky, 2011). Moreover, such an injury has to be foreseeable and cannot be remote (Greene, 2013). Upon a case of negligence been successfully established, through laying down the breach of duty of care, resulting in a harm, along with foreseeability, causation and the loss not being remote, the injured person can claim for monetary compensation (Latimer, 2012). In addition to such monetary compensation, an individual can also apply for non-pecuniary damages, arising due to mental or emotional distress (Trindade, Cane and Lunney, 2007). A prime case for negligence is the matter of Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] UKHL 100 or the snail in the bottle case. In this case, the defendant was Stevenson, who used to manufacture the ginger beer bottle and the plaintiff was Donoghue, who consumed the ginger beer which was manufactured by the defendant while she was at one of the cafs in Paisley, Renfrewshire. The bottle of ginger beer contained a dead snail, and upon the consumption of ginger beer from this bottle, the plaintiff fell sick. The manufacturer claimed that he had no duty of care towards the consumer, when she raised claims against the manufacturer. The court held that the manufacturer was responsible and he had to compensate the consumer for negligence (Harvey and Marston, 2009). In the matter of Vaughan v Menlove (1837) 132 ER 490 (CP), the breach of duty of care was successfully established against the defendant, as he failed to pay head over the numerous warnings which were given to him before the actual fire. The base of these warning was the poor ventilation of the room where the hay was kept (E-Law Resources, 2017a). Another leading case in this matter is Wagon Mount case or the Overseas Tankship (UK) Ltd v Morts Dock and Engineering Co Ltd [1961] UKPC 2 where the key grounds for the fire were held to be remote and so, the damages for the resulting fire were not payable by the defendant by the Court of law (Emanuel and Emanuel, 2008). In Grant v The Australian Knitting Mills [1935] UKPC 2, the manufacturer of the woolen underpants was held liable to the plaintiff for the dermatitis caused to Grant (Swarb, 2016). In the given case, the claim of negligence, due to the failure in taking the requisite precautions were applicable through the Wrongs Act 1958s section 48 and 49. The general principle is covered under section 48. This is in line with the common law tort of negligence. As per this, the risk has to be foreseeable, not inconsequential, and in similar conditions a prudent individual would have taken the requisite safety measures. For determining whether a prudent individual would have undertaken the safety measures against the threat of harm, the court mulls over the seriousness of harm, social utility of the activity which created the risk of harm, probability of harm and the burden of taking the safety measures for avoiding the risk of harm. In section 49, the provisions regarding the burden of taking safety measures, the fact that risk of harm could have been evaded and the subsequent taking of act that could have mitigated the risk of harm (Australasian Legal Information Institute, 2014). Under 51(1) of this act, the plaintiff had to prove that the negligence of SPI was crucial condition for the happening of harm. And the burden of proving this was placed on the plaintiff through section 52 on the balance of probabilities, along with the relevant facts to the issue of causation (Australasian Legal Information Institute, 2014). The court had already established that for SPI, there was a real risk of failure of the scheduled inspection. The negligence was alleged on part of SPI for its management of electricity infrastructure, targeted damper, asset management case, oil-operated circuit recloser, and nuisance in legal sense. Osborn J, at 149, stated that SPI knew of should have known about the possible risks. There is also an aspect of liability which would fall over the maintenance contractor UAM. He had failed to apply the required due care and skill when he was undertaking the pre-fire scheduled inspection which last occurred in February 2008, of the Valley, which was just before twelve months of this fire. Hence, for both the parties, the base for legal actions stemmed from negligence. Though, the liability of SPI was higher than UAM, as the latter was only responsible for a part of the negligence (State Government of Victoria, 2014). 3. As has been highlighted in the previous segment, for SPI and UAM, there is a legal liability arising out of the negligence resulting in injury/ loss/ damage to the various individuals forming a part of the class action. However, there are certain limits which are imposed regarding the recovery, with respect to the different classes of individuals which have been referred earlier and to whom the damage has been caused. These relate to the negligent pure economic loss. This refers to the economic loss suffered by an individual which was not a result from the physical injury caused to such individual, but for the economic loss caused (Harp, 2009). So, the class action highlighted above, under which there are individuals who lost their livelihood or income gaining source, as a result of the fire, would be the ones on whom the negligent pure economic loss principle would apply. In case this principle can be established, the no recovery rule can be applied (Hunag, 2011). This rule was established Rylands v Fletcher [1868] UKHL 1, where the judges held that the pure economic loss is not recoverable. In this case, the defendant was the owner of a mill and a reservoir was constructed on their land a reservoir. This reservoir was positioned over a disused mine. The reservoirs water was filtered through this disused mine and consequently, it spread over a working mine, which was owned by the plaintiff, due to the extensive damage caused to his mine. The defendant was held to be legally responsible for only the non-natural use of the land and not for the economic loss caused (E-Law Resources, 2017b). In the same manner, in Weller v Foot and Mouth Disease Research Institute [1966] 1 QB 569, from the premises of the defendant, a virus had escaped and this had infected the cattle, as a result of which, they could not be sold. The auctioneer was the plaintiff in this case, who brought an action as per Rylands v Fletcher for the loss of profit, which could have been made, had the cattle remained unaffected. However, the claim failed as the quoted case clearly stated that the pure economic losses are not recoverable (E-Law Resources, 2017c). So, as per Rylands v Fletcher and Weller v Foot and Mouth Disease Research Institute, the individuals in the class action, who lost their houses and their source of earnings, would not be able to recover the damages, as these were economic losses. 4. The case of Matthews v AusNet Electricity Services Pty Ltd Ors presents a great example for the managing of claims arising due to negligence, against a company. This also presents an opportunity for limiting the exposure to the claims of negligence. For any organization, to evade the chances of such claims being raised against it, it should keep updated regarding the precedents. Precedents are the decisions which have been taken by the judges, in some previous cases (Legal Information Institute, 2017). Precedents are applicable on the courts, which fall below in the hierarchy chart to the court which gave the decision in a particular case (Duxbury, 2008). Even beyond the case laws, the established/ prime/ leading cases can be used as an example to evade the claims of negligence. And even if such claims are raised, these case laws can be used to favor the point being proved in the given case, where such point has been successfully raised in some previous one. This has further been explained with the help of examples. In Woolcock Street Investments v CDG Pty Ltd [2004] HCA 16, a question was raised before the High Court regarding the liability of an architect or a builder of a commercial building, towards a succeeding purchaser of such a building, for the defects in the design or construction of the building, which resulted in an economic loss to the subsequent purchaser. The High Court gave a landmark decision and denied the liability of the architect or the builder in such a case. Now, this case can be used by the builder or architects working in the current scenario, where a subsequent purchaser raises a claim against them (Allens, 2004). In Burnie Port Authority v General Jones Pty Ltd (1994) 179 CLR 520, General Jones was the plaintiff and his property was kept in the building belonging to Burnie, the defendant. Burnie had contracted a few independent contractors to carry out certain work. Due to the negligence of these contractors, the building caught fire and was burnt down. Consequently, the property of the plaintiff was destroyed (Sappideen, Vines, Grant and Watson, 2009). This case was the one in which the High Court decided that the rule given under Rylands v Fletcher would be abolished. So, by use of Burnie Port Authority v General Jones Pty Ltd, for giving away with the liability for economic loss, as highlighted in the previous question, the individuals belonging to the class action who could have been denied the recovery of damages can now easily claim the same. This shows how each and every case can be used for the advantage or disadvantage in a particular case. Hence, the companies have to pay heed not only to the claims they are going to support through established cases, but also the ones, which can be used against the company for cancelling their claims, by the other party. To contradict the point raised in Burnie, the case of Johnson Tiles Pty Ltd v Esso Australia Pty Ltd [2003] VSC 27 can be used by the defendants. In this case, owing to the recklessness of Esso in maintaining its plant, the explosion was caused. In the Supreme Court of Victoria, a claim was raised against Esso. The majority of claims in this case were purely economic in nature. The judges held that this case was identical to that of Grant v Australian Knitting Mills and Donoghue v Stevenson regarding the duty of care owed by Esso to his customers regarding avoidance of a stoppage of gas which resulted in property damage. Though, the statutory framework could not inflict a duty for pure economic loss on Esso. Hence, Gillard J held that Esso did not owe a duty for the economic loss (Sweeney, 2004). Even though in Mathews, only the compensation amount was decided upon and the faults were not fixed. Though, if the faults had to be established, instead of achieving a settlement amount, Johnson Tiles Pty Ltd v Esso Australia Pty Ltd would have been the most helpful case. This is because the facts of this case match the case of fire in Matthews. So, by use of this case, along with the ones mentioned earlier, SPI and UAM would have been able to evade the claim of negligence due to pure economic loss. And so, they would have been required to only compensate for the physical loss caused. In Australia, the engineers have to comply with a Code of Ethics which relate to their field of experience and knowledge, and is known as Engineers Australia code of ethics. The code has been segmented into four core areas, whereby the engineers have to demonstrate integrity, practice competently, promote sustainability and exercise leadership (Engineers Australia, 2015). This code of ethics acts as a standard, and its compliance helps in barring the claims of negligence in a successful manner. The reason behind this lies in the four areas in which it is segmented. The engineers are required to act on well-informed conscience, have to respect the dignity of others, and be trustworthy and honest in their work. They also have to maintain their professional competence by learning more and more. By recognizing the stakeholders, their needs and requirements are kept in mind, along with that of the future generations. This helps in avoiding an act, which could result in a harm or injury. Moreover, it also ensures that steps are taken to avoid the occurrence of such incidents, which could result in harm to the present or to the future generations (Engineers Australia, 2015). However, even though the engineers opt for such code of ethics, there are chances of claims being raised for the negligence caused. This is because the adherence to the code is dependent on the human nature and their capability. So, even though the code has been drawn, an engineer may breach it, which results in negligence claims being brought forward. But, for such claims, the Code would have been breached. In other words, a strict adherence to the Code could avoid the claims of negligence and a breach of the same, would result in a successful claim being raised. References Abbott, K., Pendlebury, N., and Wardman, K. (2007) Business law. 8th ed. London: Thompson Learning. Allens. (2004) Litigation Dispute Resolution. [Online] Allens. Available from: https://www.allens.com.au/pubs/ldr/recall2jun04.htm [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Anderson, B., and Trask, A. (2012) The Class Action Playbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Australasian Legal Information Institute. (2014) Matthews v AusNet Electricity Services Pty Ltd Ors [2014] VSC 663 (23 December 2014). [Online] Australasian Legal Information Institute. Available from: https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/sinodisp/au/cases/vic/VSC/2014/663.html?stem=0synonyms=0query=title(Matthews%20and%25 [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Duxbury, N. (2008) The Nature and Authority of Precedent. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eisenberg, J.N. (2016) Litigating Securities Class Actions. New York: LexisNexis. E-Law Resources. (2017a) Vaughan v Menlove (1837) 3 Bing NC 467. [Online] E-Law Resources. Available from: https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/Vaughan-v-Menlove.php [Accessed on: 03/04/17] E-Law Resources. (2017b) Rylands v Fletcher [1868] UKHL 1 House of Lords. [Online] E-Law Resources. Available from: https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/cases/Rylands-v-Fletcher.php [Accessed on: 03/04/17] E-Law Resources. (2017c) Weller v Foot and Mouth Disease Research Institute [1966] 1 QB 569. [Online] E-Law Resources. Available from: https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/cases/Weller-v-Foot-and-Mouth-Disease-Research-Institute.php [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Emanuel, S., and Emanuel, L. (2008) Torts. New York: Aspen Publishers. Engineers Australia. (2015) The Ethical Engineer. [Online] Engineers Australia. Available from: https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/portal/news/ethical-engineer [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Farnsworth, S. (2016) Black Saturday bushfires: Victims to get compensation payouts before Christmas. [Online] ABC News. Available from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-12-07/black-saturday-bushfire-survivors-to-receive-payout-christmas/8099322 [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Grave, D.B., Adams, K., and Betts, J. (2012) Class Actions in Australia. Sydney: Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia. Greene, B. (2013) Course Notes: Tort Law. Oxon: Routledge. Greer, M.H. (2010) A Practitioner's Guide to Class Actions. Illinois, United States: American Bar Association. Harp, V.H. (2009) Modern Tort Law. 7th ed. Oxon: Routledge-Cavendish. Harvey, B., and Marston, J. (2009) Cases and Commentary on Tort. 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Huang, Y. (2011) Recoverability of Pure Economic Loss Arising from Ship-source Oil Pollution. Berlin: Lit Verlag. Jade. (2014) Matthews v AusNet Electricity Services Pty Ltd Ors [2014] VSC 663. [Online] Jade. Available from: https://jade.io/j/?a=outlineid=363257 [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Johnson, E. (2013) To Establish Justice for All: The Past and Future of Civil Legal Aid in the United States [3 volumes]: The Past and Future of Civil Legal Aid in the United States. California: ABC-CLIO. Kelly, D., Hammer, R., and Hendy, J. (2014) Business Law. 2nd ed. Oxon: Routledge. Latimer, P. (2012) Australian Business Law 2012. 31st ed. Sydney, NSW: CCH Australia Limited. Legal Information Institute. (2017) Precedent. [Online] Legal Information Institute. Available from: https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/precedent [Accessed on: 03/04/17] McDermott Will Emery. (2007) Defending Against Class and Collective Employee Actions. [Online] McDermott Will Emery. Available from: https://files.mwe.com/info/news/wp0207a.pdf [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Milovanovic, S. (2011) Court told Black Saturday case should be thrown out. [Online] The Age. Available from: https://www.theage.com.au/victoria/court-told-black-saturday-case-should-be-thrown-out-20110325-1ca53.html [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Sappideen, C., Vines, P., Grant, H., and Watson, P. (2009) Torts, Commentary and Materials. 10th ed. Pyrmont: Lawbook Co. Sherman, E.F. (2017) Class Actions and Duplicative Litigation. [Online] Maurer School of Law: Indiana University. Available from: https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2066context=ilj [Accessed on: 03/04/17] State Government of Victoria. (2014) In The Supreme Court Of Victoria. [Online] State Government of Victoria. Available from: https://assets.justice.vic.gov.au/supreme/resources/5009fd2c-2fe2-4f69-b422-96bf249c6c6a/reasons+of+justice+osborn+for+judgment+given+on+23+december+2014.pdf [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Statsky, W.P. (2011) Essentials of Torts. 3rd ed. New York: Cengage Learning. Swarb. (2016) Grant v Australian Knitting Mills: PC 21 Oct 1935. [Online] Swarb. Available from: https://swarb.co.uk/grant-v-australian-knitting-mills-pc-21-oct-1935/ [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Sweeney, B. (2004) Johnson Tiles Pty Ltd v Esso Australia Pty Ltd [2003] VSC 27 (Supreme Court of Victoria). [Online] Australasian Legal Information Institute. Available from: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/NatEnvLawRw/2004/12.pdf [Accessed on: 03/04/17] Trindade, F., Cane, P. and Lunney, M. (2007) The law of torts in Australia. 4th ed. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Turner, C. (2013) Unlocking Torts. 3rd ed. Oxon: Routledge.

Unidentified Flying Objects Fact Or Fiction Essays - Pseudoscience

Unidentified Flying Objects: Fact or Fiction? Unidentified flying objects, or UFOs, as they're fondly called, are one of the century's most intriguing and controversial mysteries. Since ancient times, UFOs of all types have been accounted for. More today than ever, hundreds of thinkers, theologians, and scientists have tried to answer why there are or whether there aren't UFOs. According to some, the speculation that UFOs are alien spacecrafts from another world is an absurd and foolish proposal. Others vehemently disagree and assert that extraterrestrial life is not only possible, but such life forms may be superior, technologically advanced beings who visit our Earth regularly. Are these "flying saucers" a figment of our imagination? Or, are they a genuine reality we prefer to dismiss because we fear the scary truth that we are not the only master race? Are we hesitant because society dubs such "immature" psycho tantamount to subscribing to belief in ghosts? These are a few of the many pertinent UFO questions the mature individual must address. One of the most popular theories that support and explains the existence of alien beings is the ancient astronaut theory. This theory contains three main schools of thought. The first states that aliens bred with our primitive forebears thereby creating modern man. The second is quite similar. Aliens performed genetic engineering on apes thereby creating the Homo Sapiens and man's intelligence. The third, and least accepted, is that colonists from another galaxy came to Earth, mated with the primitives and established a high level of culture, before being destroyed by some natural catastrophe. And upon this catastrophe and destruction, we build and grow (Fitzgerald 1). Berossus, a Babylonian scholar, may have been the first astronaut historian. He said that " animals endowed with reason" bestowed the Sumerian culture before 3000 BCE. The Sumerians, along with their cultural inheritors, the Babylonians, never referred to such beings as gods. Rather they were depicted as "disgusting abominations," adescription only deserved by uninvited alien visitors (2). One step further takes the astronaut theory and surmises that with it, we can understand the later religious cultures, such as the Hebrews who are thought to have borrowed much of Sumerian practice. Such religions and secret societies, with their elaborate and complicated rituals may actually be "preserving from a previous epoch fragments of an esoteric and little understood knowledge, just as the Egyptian, Hebrew, and Mayan priests guarded in their temples the inspired word of their self-possessed creators (3)." Alien originators may have set down certain rites which became confused over the years, resulting in the various ancient religions; aliens being the source of our notion of God. This also may explain how miles long designs, only viewable from the air, were created in ancient times. The only rationalization for the possibility of such designs is that the ancients had assistance from the sky, namely extraterrestrial assistance. Many UFO theorists, astronomer Morris Jessup being the forerunner, go even further: not only were pre-Biblical and Biblical times full of Alien intervention, but he contends that the UFO phenomenon is the missing link between Biblical supernatural accounts of miracles and established, contradicting science. Jessup explains that "nothing is supernatural and nothing is outside nature (12)." He continues that the Bible is full of UFO accounts, depicted by various descriptions: angels, the revelation on Mt. Sinai, the burning bush, and Elijah's levitation to heaven. Jessup says the Bible is a physical record, not a collection of divine revelation "although the miracles of this and all religions invite rational and physical explanation, if we grant the 'existence of spatial intelligence (13).'" Another thinker, Brinsley Trent, follows the theme of extraterrestrial interpretations of the Bible and claims that the Garden of Eden was, as many ancient texts point out, not the underground, but in the Underworld - i.e. outside the orbit of earth, meaning Mars. When the Great Flood occurred, Noah built a great "boat," a spaceship, and landed on Earth (Life 16). However, Cornell astronomer Carl Sagan warns that this ancient astronaut theory and the "saucer myths" represent a compromise "between the need to believe in a traditional God and the contemporary pressures to accept the pronouncement of science (Fitzgerald 5);" therefore, according to

Free Essays on Freud And Piaget

Introduction Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Piaget’s cognitive development theory are two well known theories in explaining the development of personality. They both can explain where children are in their development of their personality. Although they aren’t thought of as useful and ‘true’ theories they are very interesting to see how they apply to children. These theories are outlined below and are shown how they apply to a family with three children. Freud’s Theory Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was an approach to describing and explaining the development of personality. In describing the development of personality Freud proposed that that it followed a sequence of five different ‘psychosexual stages’, with each stage having crucial emotional events, with the more important ones occurring during childhood. But the main idea in the ‘psychosexual stages’ is that the emotional events involved sexual urges. If a failure to complete a crucial event in a particular stage either by too little gratification or too much anxiety then a ‘fixation’ results. This fixation causes impairment in personality development causing ‘the individual to retain some of the characteristics of that stage in later life’ (Birch 1997). The ‘Oxford Psychology Study Dictionary’ describes Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages as follows: Oral Stage (0 – 2 years) The mouth is the focus of pleasurable sensations such as sucking, chewing and biting. The parents are the main sources for gratification for the infant, and the ways in which they meet the infant’s needs are critical in shaping personality later in life. For example, an ‘oral fixation’ may develop if a nursing mother weans the infant too abruptly. The fixation may reveal itself later in life through activities such as constant nail biting, chewing and cigarette smoking, particularly when anxious. Anal Stage (2 – 3 years) The anus is the focus of pl... Free Essays on Freud And Piaget Free Essays on Freud And Piaget Introduction Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Piaget’s cognitive development theory are two well known theories in explaining the development of personality. They both can explain where children are in their development of their personality. Although they aren’t thought of as useful and ‘true’ theories they are very interesting to see how they apply to children. These theories are outlined below and are shown how they apply to a family with three children. Freud’s Theory Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was an approach to describing and explaining the development of personality. In describing the development of personality Freud proposed that that it followed a sequence of five different ‘psychosexual stages’, with each stage having crucial emotional events, with the more important ones occurring during childhood. But the main idea in the ‘psychosexual stages’ is that the emotional events involved sexual urges. If a failure to complete a crucial event in a particular stage either by too little gratification or too much anxiety then a ‘fixation’ results. This fixation causes impairment in personality development causing ‘the individual to retain some of the characteristics of that stage in later life’ (Birch 1997). The ‘Oxford Psychology Study Dictionary’ describes Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages as follows: Oral Stage (0 – 2 years) The mouth is the focus of pleasurable sensations such as sucking, chewing and biting. The parents are the main sources for gratification for the infant, and the ways in which they meet the infant’s needs are critical in shaping personality later in life. For example, an ‘oral fixation’ may develop if a nursing mother weans the infant too abruptly. The fixation may reveal itself later in life through activities such as constant nail biting, chewing and cigarette smoking, particularly when anxious. Anal Stage (2 – 3 years) The anus is the focus of pl...

Chemistry of BHA and BHT Food Preservatives

Chemistry of BHA and BHT Food Preservatives Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and the related compound butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are phenolic compounds that are often added to foods to preserve fats  and oils and keep them from becoming rancid. They are added to food, cosmetics, and packing of products that contain fats to maintain nutrient levels, color, flavor, and odor. BHT is also sold as a dietary supplement for use as an antioxidant. The chemicals are found in an extensive list of products, yet there is concern about their safety. Take a look at the chemical properties of these molecules, how they work, and why their use is controversial. BHA Characteristics BHA is a mixture of the isomers 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole and 2-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole. Also known as BOA, tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole, (1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methoxyphenol, tert-butyl-4-methoxyphenol, antioxyne B, and under various trade namesMolecular formula C11H16O2White or yellowish waxy solidFaint characteristic aromatic odor BHT Characteristics Also known as 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxytoluene; methyl-di-tert-butyl phenol; 2,6-di-tert-butyl-para-cresolMolecular formula C15H24OWhite powder How Do They Preserve Food? BHA and BHT are antioxidants. Oxygen reacts preferentially with BHA or BHT rather than oxidizing fats or oils, thereby protecting them from spoilage. In addition to being oxidizable, BHA and BHT are fat-soluble. Both molecules are incompatible with ferric salts. In addition to preserving foods, BHA and BHT are also used to preserve fats and oils in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. What Foods Contain BHA and BHT? BHA is generally used to keep fats from becoming rancid. It is also used as a yeast de-foaming agent. BHA is found in butter, meats, cereals, chewing gum, baked goods, snack foods, dehydrated potatoes, and beer. It is also found in animal feed, food packaging, cosmetics, rubber products, and petroleum products. BHT also prevents oxidative rancidity of fats. It is used to preserve food odor, color, and flavor. Many packaging materials incorporate BHT. It is also added directly to shortening, cereals, and other foods containing fats and oils. Are BHA and BHT Safe? Both BHA and BHT have undergone the additive application and review process required by the US Food and Drug Administration. However, the same chemical properties which make BHA and BHT excellent preservatives may also be implicated in health effects. The research leads to conflicting conclusions. The oxidative characteristics and/or metabolites of BHA and BHT may contribute to carcinogenicity or tumorigenicity; however, the same reactions may combat oxidative stress and help detoxify carcinogens. Some studies indicate low doses of BHA are toxic to cells, while higher doses may be protective, while other studies yield exactly the opposite results. There is evidence that certain persons may have difficulty metabolizing BHA and BHT, resulting in health and behavior changes. Yet, BHA and BHT may have antiviral and antimicrobial activities. Research is underway concerning the use of BHT in the treatment of herpes simplex and AIDS. References and Additional Reading This is a fairly long list of online references. While the chemistry and effectiveness of BHA, BHT, and other additives within food is straightforward, the controversy surrounding health effects is hot, so several points of view are available. Adverse Effects of Some Inactive Ingredients - Summary of health effects reported for dyes and preservatives, including food colors, BHA, BHT, sodium benzoate, nitrates, nitrites, and monosodium glutamate.Chemical Cuisine: CSPIs Guide to Food Additives - This site includes a glossary, explanation of cancer testing, alphabetical listing of additives, and a list of additives that have been banned.Common Food Additives - CNN In-Depth provides this chart listing additives and their chemistry, uses, common products containing the additives, and reported side effects.Fresh Look at Food Preservatives - Judith E. Foulke provides an overview of the preservative use and regulation, she specifically discusses BHA, BHT, and sulfites.Chemical Sensitivity Homepage - This site discusses the inability of damaged nervous tissue to metabolize specific toxins.The Feingold Association of the United States - The Feingold Association provides extensive information about the effects of petroleum-derived ad ditives and salicylates (both natural and synthetic) on the behavior/health of susceptible persons.

The People of the Book Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The People of the Book - Research Paper Example The Quran view on the question of salvation is, to a significant determined by the question of difference in terms of practice. There seems to be some deep brotherly concern as the Quran engages the Christians in a reflective argument about some practices, which are inconsistent with its own beliefs. For instance, the Quran embraces the practice of religion as carried out by Abraham and suggests for the Christians to engage in the same â€Å"They say: "Become Jews or Christians if ye would be guided (To salvation)." Say thou: "Nay! (I would rather) the Religion of Abraham the True, and he joined not gods with Allah,† (Quran 2:135)1. A clearer view of the Quran perception on Christianity and Judaism could be understood from the perspective of the Quran on biblical figures. In the perspective of the Quran, Jesus was just among the great prophets sent by God to the world and should be treated as such without necessarily elevating him to the level of a deity. This position appears to challenge the position adopted by Christians on the position of Christ. Further, the Quran reserves special recognition for religious figures who feature prominently in the old testament such as Abraham and Isaac. This appears to affirm some close kinship between the Christians and the Muslims. ... It holds that Christians and Jews should make amends for their wrongs in order to reestablish themselves in the true worship of God. There seems to be a deep yearning in the Quran to reestablish connections with the Christians and Jews if they change certain aspects of their lives. â€Å"So if they believe as ye believe, they are indeed on the right path; but if they turn back, it is they who are in schism; but Allah will suffice thee as against them, and He is the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing,† (Quran, 2:137)3. The Quran expresses concern to particular religious practices conducted by the Christians. It suggests change from such practices and stipulates the correct manner in which they should be conducted. For instance, the Quran argues against the Christian practice of baptism with the view that only God can baptize, â€Å"(Our religion is) the Baptism of Allah: And who can baptize better than Allah? And it is He Whom we worship,† (Quran 2:138)4. Despite the heavy cri ticism that the Quran reserves for the Christians, there is an acknowledgement of the kinship between the religions. The underlying message is that the Christians have just lost their way leaving the Muslims to worship the God they share, â€Å"Say: Will ye dispute with us about Allah, seeing that He is our Lord and your Lord; that we are responsible for our doings and ye for yours; and that We are sincere (in our faith) in Him?,) (Quran 2: 139)5. In order to create impact for change the Quran offers Christianity and Jews various examples of personalities in the old testament famed for great deeds but who never practiced the kind of religious practices that is generally common in the Christian doctrine.

RPOGRAM ANALYSIS OF FIRE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

RPOGRAM ANALYSIS OF FIRE - Essay Example The proposed gym and training area/center will be constructed such that 30% and 70% of it is indoors and outdoors respectively. In terms of design and planning, the program will resemble a military training program from which fire fighters can adapt the same training methods such as rope climbing and tacking hurdles. The application of the site analysis to the community program is to facilitate evaluation of developmental constrains. For instance, while the analysis of surrounding buildings and structures is essential, the topographical characteristics such as terrain are considered. Based on the weather, soil, and available vegetation, the design and construction of the gym and training area/center would rely on this information. From a business perspective, the site analysis will consider how different other variables such as demographics and distribution interact within the area. For instance, the program will make use of a central location from which prospective clients can access the premises. In addition, the dimensions of the gym and the training center will depend on the approximate number of clients within the community. Finally, the site analysis will consider legal aspects of architectural development such as building policies, regulation of private and public structures, and availabi lity space for rental or purchase (Zimmerman,

Women in Society Essay Example for Free

Women in Society Essay The role of women has changed drastically throughout history. Women were once thought to only be able to stay at home and tend the house and family. Women were isolated in their domestic sphere; however they did not stay there. Women faced many struggles during their battle to end their isolation from the idea of gender roles within the workforce to the belief that women are not equal to men and therefore do not deserve the same rights as men. Before 1865 women had very few rights. Her legal standing depended upon her marital status, and once she was married everything became her husbands. She could not control or acquire any property, she was not allowed to control any wages she earned, she could not transfer or sell any property, and she could not bring a lawsuit, or sign any contract. Her life rested solely in the hands of her husband. Women were expected to maintain the home which included cooking and cleaning. They were also expected to bear children and spend their days focused on those children. In 1840 something began to shift when two women, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, met and discussed having a convention to address the situation of women. It took eight years for them to get back together and hold the convention known as The Seneca Falls Convention. The Declaration of Sentiments and its resolutions were presented to a group of three hundred people, including forty men. This stated that men and women were created equal and had a right to equality in all spheres including the right to vote. All of the resolutions were eventually passed. Afterwards they had to deal with ridicule and sarcasm. For example Frederick Douglass wrote a discussion of the rights of animals would be regarded with far more complacency by many of what are called the wise and the good of our land, than would be a discussion of the rights of woman† (na, http://www.npg.si.edu/col/seneca/senfalls1.htm). This shows just how women  were thought of back then. They were thought to be less than animals. While they faced mockery and anger over the fact that they thought they should have rights they did give the idea of women’s rights publicity and brought attention to the idea. This was the way many women lived until the end of the Civil War. After the Civil War the lives of women saw a change. America was expanding, and people were pushing westward. â€Å"Women played a very important role in the conquest of the West† (Bowles, 2011, The New South and New West (1865- 1890), para. 29). Some women moved west with their families, but there were also many single women who wanted to lead their own lives and widowed women who had no other choice. â€Å"while I suspect that some of the women traveled west for a mate, others were interested in a life built of their own strength, ambition and endurance. Wishart reports in the 2004 Encyclopedia of the Prairie that, under the Homestead Act, only women who were single, widowed, divorced or deserted could sign for their own land† (Willoughby, C.M., March 26, 2010, Pioneer women: how the west was really won, para. 11). Widowed women were forced to take over the role of their departed men. â€Å"These women took on the day-to-day responsibilities of farm and ranch life and were surprisingly successful. A quote from Katie Adams, a Pioneer widow, reads, â€Å"I was just like a hired man. I was right there, I even followed the plow† (Peavey Smith, 1996)† (Willoughby, C.M., March 26, 2010, Pioneer women: how the west was really won, para. 13). In Wyoming and Colorado, between 11 and 18 percent of all homesteaders were single women or widows† (Bowles, 2011, The New South and New West (1865- 1890), para. 30). There was also a need for educated women in the west in order to teach in the schools that were being created and write for the newspapers. This gave women the opportunity to bring in their own monetary contribution to the household or maintain the single life they were creating. The late 19th century was still very rural. In these rural communities women were still treated as if their â€Å"God-given role was as wife and mother, keeper of the household, guardian of the moral purity of all who lived therein. Housework took on a scientific quality, efficiency being the watchword. Children were to be cherished and nurtured. Morality was  protected through the promulgation of Protestant beliefs and social protest against alcohol, poverty and the decay of urban living† (Hartman, D.W., n.d., Women’s Roles in the Late 19th Century, para. 2). The late 19th century saw a huge growth in industry. This growth changed the nature of work in America. In early 19th century work was performed by skilled workers known as artisans, however this changed as businessmen realized that â€Å"mechanization increased profitability and decreased the reliance on skilled labor† (Bowles, 2011, Industrial Titans and Labor Unions (1860’s- 1890’s), para. 16). This opened up the door for women to take these positions. The time period of the 1890’s through the 1920’s is known as the Progressive Era. During this time period women took on a different role. Women were able to find jobs in retail, or as typists, clerks, and telephone operators. More women were graduating from college and going on to become professionals in the areas of law, healthcare, journalism, and science. â€Å"Recognizing the changes that were occurring in the lives of some women, the public and the press coined a phrase for these women, the â€Å"New Woman.† The â€Å"New Woman† was supposedly young, college educated, active in sports, interested in pursuing a career, and looking for a marriage based on equality† (The Status of Women in the Progressive Era, 2007, National Women’s History Museum, para.3). Many women, especially married, middle class women still did not work outside the home, but they still played a role in helping the plight of women by focusing their efforts on the reforms of the era. Women were able to reform areas such as education, sanitation, health, wages, working conditions, social welfare, and their greatest achievement was the implementation of the 19th amendment which gave women the right to vote. This brings us to the Women’s Suffrage Movement in which women sought the right to vote. Granted this movement had been going on for quite some time; however after the 14th and 15th amendment gave the right to vote to not just men but black men as well women believed their time for change had come. Two groups were formed with different ideas in how to achieve this goal. The National Women’s Suffrage Association (NWSA) was formed by Elizabeth Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. This group fought for women’s rights on a  national government level. The American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) was the second group that formed. This group fought for rights on a state by state basis. It was not until the two groups put aside their differences and became one forming the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890 that serious progress was made. Elizabeth Stanton was the NAWSA’s first president. Susan B. Anthony was the second president. While both of these women were in charge things were handled rather diplomatically and without much in the way of militant tactics. This all changed when Alice Paul took over as the leader after Susan B. Anthony died. Paul organized many protests and marches including one that took place during Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration as president. It was stunts like these that led many women within NAWSA to dislike her ways. She eventually left NAWSA and formed her own group, the National Woman’s Party (NWP). It was this new group that led a seven month picket of the white house which led to the arrest of the NWP suffragists. While they were imprisoned many of the women were placed in solitary confinement, so they went on a hunger strike in order to protest this unfair treatment. These women were then force fed for up to three weeks. When news of this mistreatment reached the rest of America the suffrage movement gained support including that of President Wilson (na., 2012). It was women’s actions during World War I that finally convinced the government that they were equal to men and in August of 1920 the 19th amendment, which gave women the right to vote was ratified. Women voted in their first election in November 1920. Women started off the 20th century in good standing. They had the right to vote finally, they were taking on more professional careers and they were becoming better educated. Women began smoking and drinking publicly, they cut their hair short and their skirts shorter. Women felt a sense of freedom at this point which can be seen when we look at the women’s fashion during these years for instance the flapper was a popular look. This new sense of freedom would be short lived. A change was on the way. On October 24, 1929 the stock market crashed. This brought with it challenges for women that they thought they had overcome. â€Å"Prosperity vanished almost over night, and very quickly, gender roles tightened up again. Many people blamed the crash on the loose morals of the previous decade, and the employment  crisistoo many laborers, too few jobs—seemed to dictate a return to the â€Å"natural† roles† (Radek, K. M., 2001, para. 12). This was the beginning of a time known as the Great Depression. Families lost everything during this time. There were very few jobs, so what jobs there were went to men. â€Å"There was an emotional crisis, as well, especially as men had been traditionally defined by working—especially since the industrial revolution—but couldn’t find work. In other words, without work, they couldn’t see themselves as men. To this end, many areas enacted laws to privilege men over women in regard to employment. Women were thrown out of work, and many states had laws mandating that if men were available, women couldn’t legally work—or if a woman’s husband worked, she couldn’t† (Radek, K. M., 2001, para. 12). Women were expected to take care of everything in the house regardless of a reduction in income. â€Å"Sociologists Robert and Helen Lynd noticed this trend in a study of Muncie, Indiana, published in 1937: â€Å"The men, cut adrift from their usual routine, lost much of their sense of time and dawdled helplessly and dully about the streets; while in the homes the women’s world remained largely intact and the round of cooking, housecleaning, and mending became if anything more absorbing.† To put it another way, no housewife lost her job in the Depression† (Ware, S., nd., para. 3). While traditional gender roles seemed to take over men could not be expected to fill the role of receptionist or nurse, therefore women in these positions were able to maintain their employment although they usually took a pay cut. This lasted until America became part of World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. With the onset of World War II it became necessary for men and women to change their view on gender roles in the workforce. The men in the country were being mobilized to go to war, and the country needed someone to fill their positions. Who else could they turn to but the women of the country? Women took up jobs in factories manufacturing clothes and boots for soldiers; they started working in munitions plants and aircraft factories, shipyards, and railways. Women were mail carriers, transit workers, and taxi drivers. They worked on farms and picked crops. Every area of the workforce became focused on the war and creating that which was needed to win the war against Hitler. Some women took a place in the military. Many  women served as nurses for the army and the navy; however for the first time women were allowed to serve. According to the National Women’s History Museum (2007) â€Å"more than 400,000 women served, 432 died, and 88 were prisoners of war†. Women also served as pilots flying aircrafts from the place they were manufactured to the place where they were needed. â€Å"Eighteen classes of women graduated from the Army Air Forces flight training school; they called the Women Air Force Service Pilots (WASPs). These were the first women military pilots in U.S. history, and the nation needed them because there was a general shortage of trained pilots for the war. In total, 25,000 women applied, 1,800 were accepted, and 1,000 completed the training (Cole, 1995)† (Bowles, 2011, The World at War (1941-1945), para. 17). World War II could not last forever, and with its end men returned home expecting to have their positions back. Women who had found a purpose in working now found themselves no longer needed. They were sent back to their domestic sphere. â€Å"Families moved to the suburbs, fostered a baby boom, and forged a happy life of family togetherness in which everyone had a specified role. Women were considered domestic caregivers, with sole responsibility for the home and child rearing, while men ‘brought home the bacon.’ â€Å"Popular since the 1950s, this tenacious stereotype conjures mythic images of culture icons June Cleaver, Donna Reed, Harriet Nelson the quintessential white, middleclass housewives who stayed at home to rear children, clean house and bake cookies.† (Meyerowitz, 1994)† (Holt, J. (nd)., para. 1). America after World War II was a place of hope and new beginnings for many families in America. This was the time of the baby boom. Women were having more babies which increased their duties in the household therefore solidifying their role as caretaker. This was also a time of great consumerism. Many things were being created with the hope that it would make the lives of women easier such as vacuum cleaners, toasters, washing machines, and then of course there was the television. This allowed manufacturers to create commercial specifically geared towards the women of the household. It seemed as if the goal of most families was to be prosperous, happy members of society, but for the women of the 1950’s there was an underlying anger that stemmed from being removed from jobs that made them feel accomplished and good about themselves. â€Å"The culture was simply not portraying a lifestyle women wanted: indeed, studies indicate as many as 80% of post-war women felt working outside of the home would lead to a more satisfied life (Renzetti Curran, 2004)† (Holt, J. (nd)., para.8). It is this animosity that sets the stage for the women of the 1960’s and 1970’s. The women of the 1960’s and 1970’s were dissatisfied with their lives and the fact that they were being relegated to the role of housewife and mother. They wanted something else, something more than what they were being given. This is the beginning of the women’s liberation movement. Women watched as the civil rights movement was fought for, and gained insight into the fact that a movement could reach an entire nation. The civil rights movement breathed new life in to the women of this time. In 1966 the National Organization for Women (NOW) was created. The purpose of NOW was to bring about the true equality of women in America. According to NOW’s statement of purpose (1966) a majority of the women working outside the home â€Å"are in routine clerical, sales, or factory jobs, or they are household workers, cleaning women, hospital attendants† which indicates that the better jobs are going to the men. The statement (1966) also shows how poor the wages are for those women that are working outside the home with the women only earning 60% of what the men earn. One of the last things that the statement (1966) brings to light is the fact that well educated women are not able to hold jobs of importance in society. Women wanted a change in politics, education, and business. They wanted to be treated as equals. In 1972 the equal rights amendment was passed out of congress and ratified by 28 states, but that was not enough to make it a part of the constitution. This amendment would make it illegal for any form of gender discrimination. One major accomplishment of the women’s liberation movement was the ruling in Roe v. Wade which ended a ban on abortion in 46 states. The strides gained during these critical years were short lived as the 1980’s brought with it the idea that everything had been settled. Things essentially remained the same in the 1980’s. These were quiet times for women. More women were entering professional positions in their careers and achieving better education. There were some key accomplishments during the 1980’s such as the fact that the ERA expired in 1982. Sandra Day  O’Connor became the first woman justice of the Supreme Court in 1981. Sally Ride became the first woman in space in 1983. In 1984 Geraldine Ferraro was the first woman nominated for the office of vice president. President Ronald Reagan made it known that a teacher would be selected as the first private US citizen in space. This idea was called the Teacher in Space Program and on July 19, 1985 a high school teacher named Christa McAuliffe was selected to participate in this program. Unfortunately the joy of this accomplishment was short lived. On January 28, 1986 when the space shuttle Challenger took off it exploded 73 seconds into its journey killing everyone on it. In 1986 over half of college graduates are women. For most working women during the 1980’s there is the harsh realization that although they have made advancements in their respective fields; their advancements can only go so far before they hit the â€Å"glass ceiling†. It is obvious that the 1980’s had some large gains for women in society, but it also had some downfalls as well. The 1990’s saw great changes for women as they learned that they could be appointed to higher roles in the government. Madeleine Albright was appointed Secretary of State, Janet Reno became the United States Attorney General, Sheila Widnall became Secretary of the Air Force, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg became the second woman appointed to the Supreme Court. Women saw a boost in their sense of self-worth as several women including Anita Hill came forward to testify about the fact that they had been sexually harassed by Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas. The fact that this case was put in the public eye showed women that they did not have to put up with sexual harassment, and gave many women the courage to stand up for themselves. In 1991 the Glass Ceiling Commission was created in order to ensure that women who are qualified for a job are not blocked from advancements. In 1993 emphasis is put on women in the work place as the first annual Take Our Daughters to Work Day is held. The Violence Against Women Act was established in 1994. This act made a priority out of investigating and prosecuting violent crimes against women. In 1997 General Claudia Kennedy became the first female three star general, and the WNBA is created. By 1999 some 60% of women work outside the home (Women of the Century, 2012). At this point it is obvious that there has been a huge shift in the way  Americans view women’s role in society. The role of women has changed drastically since 1865. There is even a drastic change in the way women are treated and viewed in just the last 50 years. The modern woman of the 21st century has moved out of the kitchen and into the workplace. Her focus has shifted from that of housekeeping and child bearing to that of education and career. â€Å"In the past, college was viewed by many as a place for women to find a husband or get their Mrs. Moving past that mentality has resulted in an increasingly large number of female college graduates, all coming from a variety of backgrounds (Sarna, M., 2004, para. 3). The education of women has gone from teaching them how to be the perfect wife and mother to giving them the opportunity to study anything they want including areas that were considered for men. Women are choosing to climb the corporate ladder rather than start a family. They are remaining single longer and waiting to have kids until their careers are solid. Women of today are living a completely different life than any of the women that have come before them. They have access to better education, careers, and are actually living longer than women in 1865. There are still people that maintain the idea that women should be barefoot and pregnant cooking for their husband, but that is not the thought of the majority. There is still progress to be made which is why the role of women is ever evolving. Women have faced many struggles, but they have been able to overcome those struggles and are no longer trapped in the domestic sphere of women in the past. References Bowles, M. (2011). A history of the United States since 1865. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education. Diane, D. (March 11, 2011). American History of Women in the 1990s. Retrieved from http://www.infobarrel.com/American_History_of_Women_in_the_1990s Evans, S. (2012). Women’s Liberation Movement. Retrieved from http://www.ourvoiceourcountry.org/research/womens-liberation-movement.aspx Hartman, D.W., (n.d.). Women’s Roles in the Late 19th Century. Conner Prairie Interactive History Park. Retrieved from http://www.connerprairie.org/Learn-And-Do/Indiana-History/America-1860-1900/Lives-Of-Women.aspx Holt, J. (nd). The Ideal Woman. Retrieved from http://www.csustan.edu/honors/documents/journals/soundings/Holt.pdf National Organization for Women Statement Purpose. (1966). Retrieved from http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111now.html Partners in Winning the War: American Women in World War II. (2007). National Women’s History Museum. Retrieved from http://www.nwhm.org/online-exhibits/partners/10.html Pioneer Women: How the West was Really Won, (March 26, 2010), Friends of Homestead National Monument of America. Retrieved from http://homesteadcongress.blogspot.com/2010/03/pioneer-women-how-west-was-really won.html Radek, K. M. (2001). Women in the Twentieth Century and Beyond. Women in Literature. Retrieved from http://www2.ivcc.edu/gen2002/twentieth_century.htm Reforming Their World: Women in the Progressive Era. (2007). National Women’s History Museum. Retrieved from http://www.nwhm.org/online-exhibits/progressiveera/suffrage.html Sarna, M. (January 13, 2004). Women Role-ing Into 21st Century: Womens Lifestyles Now Focus on Education, Jobs. Retrieved from http://www.palyvoice.com/node/13742 Stathopoulos, V. (2012). Christa McAuliffe. Retrieved from http://www.aerospaceguide.net/women_in_space/christa_mcauliffe.html The Seneca Falls Convention. (n.d.). National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved from http://www.npg.si.edu/col/seneca/senfalls1.htm Ware, S. (nd.). Women and the Great Depression. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Retrieved from http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/great-depression/essays/women-and-great-depression Women Who Fought for the Vote. (2012). The History Channel website. Retrieved from

Affirmative Action and College Admissions: A Legal and Ethical Analysi

Affirmative Action and College Admissions: A Legal and Ethical Analysis I. Introduction The institution of public education has been one of the most controversial establishments in the United States since its inception. More specifically, equality in the conditions and the opportunities it provides has been sought as one of its major goals. There is little doubt that minority ethnic groups have struggled to achieve educational equality, just as they have struggled for equality in other aspects of life. One way that minorities have tried to achieve equality in education is through lobbying for help in college admissions for their respective groups. This social practice has been debated on many grounds, including necessity and ethical permissibility. The debate over the necessity of equal opportunity in education for minority groups can be traced back to the post Civil War era. The well-known debates between African-American intellectuals W.E.B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington focused on this issue. DuBois believed that the newly emancipated blacks should be slowly integrated into the culture of white America. He argued that the best way for African-Americans to further themselves in society was to embrace their differences and not try to be subjected to the same educational system as the majority population. On the other hand, Booker T. Washington believed that blacks needed to be declared completely equal to whites in every way. He wanted immediate integration into all social institutions that were available to whites, including public education. Washington believed that this was the only way that equality could ultimately be achieved was to break down the social barriers between the races immediately and ... ...w.abanet.org/publiced/focus/spr98collad.html" > Alger, Jonathan. "The Educational Value of Diversity." The American Association of University Professors. Academe, January/February 1997. < "http://www.aaup.org/publications/Academe/1997/aadivart.htm" > Curry, Tom. "Split Decision on Racial Preference." MSNBC News. June 2003. < "http://www.msnbc.com/news/929326.asp?0cv=CA01&cp1=1" > Hurdato, Sylvia et. al. Defending Diversity: Affirmative Action at the University of Michigan. University of Michigan Press. 27 February, 2004. Orfield, Gary. Kurlaender, Michal. Chilling Admissions: The Affirmative Action Crisis and the Search for Alternatives. Harvard Education Publishing Group, 2001. Orfield, Gary. Kurlaender, Michal. Diversity Challenged: Evidence on the Impact of Affirmative Action. Harvard Education Publishing Group, 2001.

Thinking About Diversity and Inclusion

Ethnic Groups are race, ethnicity, religion, and gender. According to University of Phoenix Understanding and Managing Diversity, Section I (2014), â€Å"United States has always been a nation of Immigrants, with a mixture of ethnicities, races, and religions that have not always lived and worked together amicably' Having such a mixture of cultural diversity its surprising how difficult it is to end the Prejudice and Stereotypes. Race Is defined for minorities In two forms obvious differences Like hair ND skin color.Physical defined as prominent body parts like the shape of a nose. According to University of Phoenix Racial and Ethnic Groups, Chi. 1 (2014), â€Å"Society has defined what we flans obvious and physical. Ethnicity, are types of Orleans or distinctive cultural patterns in races† In the united States Hispanics or Latino include Mexican Americans like Puerco Rican and Cubans and known to have Black or White skin color. Religion Includes groups Like the Church of Jes us Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Morons), Jehovah Witnesses, Amiss, Muslims, and Buddhists.The most nominate in the United States are Protestants followed by Roman Catholics. Gender Is simply male and female. I identify the most with the African American culture. I grew up in a very diverse neighborhood dominated by African Americans, Hispanic, and white. I lived In my neighborhood until I was 16 and to this day still have a strong bond with my childhood friends. We have gone through school together, gotten married together, and now we are having kids together. I feel very fortunate to be part of such a diverse social circle. I find myself favoring the minority group because this is what is familiar o me.I believe this can make me sort of prejudice to outsiders that may not identify with my social circle. Our commonality was our parents were on a fixed budget, we weren't able to vacation, and we were used to second hand clothes and material items like bikes. We all understood whe re we came from and we also knew we were all cool kids. We created a sentimental bond that to this day Is very obvious when you see us together. Some people notice a black man and white women and some people see two friends deeply connected. Diversity is defined by the various differences that exist among people.If a workplace employed 100 white women they are still diverse in age, educational experience and religious background. I believe society might not think 100 white women are diverse. Organizations seem to hire employees of other races to give the observation they are diverse when they are already are. Inclusion is an approach that makes each employee feel welcome and a part of the team. Organizations may seem diverse by meeting the racial quota but that doesn't mean the organization is an inclusive work environment. â€Å"In the workplace, organizations are shifting their views on diversity and Inclusion.Whereas 30 years ago, promoting women and minorities was the focus, to day's message is positive and reflective. Many corporations ask internally, does every employee In our organization feel valued† (â€Å"What Is the Difference toy 2 mission of if an employee isn't happy he or she won't be creative and productive. My organizations goal is to make employees happy to get a Job well done. According to University of Phoenix Understanding and Managing Diversity, Section I (2014), â€Å"Diversity is about business and the bottom line and about leveraging the skills and talents of all employees to enable the organization to compete.Diversity is not about reaching quotas and hiring unqualified minorities for the sake of having diversity' As the times change so should the direction of the training to be successful. A good example of change was the passing of Equal Pay Act (1963) that males and females are paid the same wage for Jobs of equal skill and responsibility. It is challenging to create a workplace the supports proactive behavior and train emp loyees to believe the story that supports the behavior. Employees want to feel they make a contribution to the organizational goal and not Just tolerated.This has even employees in the 21st century the ability to choose their Jobs versus decades ago where minorities and women that may not have had a choice. My director thinks that men are more logical than women who tend to be more emotional. She manages me a woman and another coworker who is male. He tends to lack in his responsibilities and when he does not participate whole in our group projects I am very tactful at sharing his approach. My director has mentioned that women tend to hold grudges and can't let things roll of their backs like men do.She feels I am being negative towards my coworker but I only give feedback based on acts not assumptions. What she doesn't realize because of her personal beliefs s continues to make poor business decisions based her emotions versus the facts. It is very frustrating to work alongside a p erson who doesn't give an honest work day. She has mentioned because my coworker comes from a good family (money) and had a college education he is worth the investment. I find this very prejudice behavior and have learned to use these types of experiences as a tool to better my managing skills so hopefully I move up in the organization. Thinking About Diversity and Inclusion What are the dimensions of cultural diversity? Identify and briefly explain the dimensions by referencing both textbooks. There are primary and secondary dimensions of cultural diversity. The primary dimensions are the ones that are the thought of most when thinking about diversity. These are things that describe an individual’s identity. The things included here are things such as age, gender, race, etc. If you are reflecting on the many ways your employees can vary (by race, gender, age, education, sexual orientation, geographic origin or employment, tenure), that’s a mixture whose components are people, individuals categorized along multiple dimensions† (Harvey & Allard, 2009 P. 12). The secondary dimensions are functions or organizational units. â€Å"One may argue that functions are composed of individuals, which is true, but the general manager of multiple functions does not experience this as a mixture of people but rather as a mixture of organizational units† (Harvey & Allard, 2009 P. 2). Some dimensions of cultural diversity are east to recognize, while other are not. We all should be very open to the meaning of diversity, and be looking for and sensitive to the differences in each other. With what ethnic, cultural, or other groups do you identify? Describe what members of your social circle have in common. Although I only have a small percentage (3/8th’s) of Cherokee Indian in me, I would say that it is the ethnic group that I identify with the most. The history, religion, and way of life of the Native Americans have always fascinated me. Native Americans are very proud people. They are also very connected with nature, and enjoy living off of the land. While there are many Indian reservations now that are very modern there are still many who stay true to their roots, and still live their lives as closely to the ways of their ancestors as possible. I feel that these roots are very strong and just having a trace if Native American blood in you is enough to keep your love of nature and enjoyment from being in the wild strong. Regardless of the way current Native Americans live, the simple fact that this blood if flowing through their veins is something that all Native Americans are proud of, even ones like me who just have a small amount. What is the difference between diversity and inclusion? Diversity and inclusion are very closely related. Diversity represents having people of different races, genders, ages, disabilities, sexual orientation, color, native origins, religions, etc. together in a group. You can see diversity in just about every place you go. Think about flying on a commercial airplane. You will most likely have a very diverse group of people flying with you. Just having a diverse group does not mean that all people in the group are treated equally, or valued for their abilities, and unique qualities. This is what inclusion is. So in the same example of flying on that commercial airplane, you would see inclusion in the treatment received by all persons on the plane from the flight attendants. You could very well see the lack of inclusion from some of the passengers on the plane as well. So the difference is that diversity is just having a group of different types of people together, and inclusion is the equal treatment and respect of each individual in the group. What is the importance of workplace diversity training? Workplace diversity training is extremely important. With the rising number of minorities in the workplace it is almost guaranteed that you will be working in a diverse group of people. Not being properly educated on diversity, and how to effectively work in these diverse groups can be very detrimental to your own career success, as well and your co-workers and employers success. Communication is essential in all work environments, and poor communication between people in a diverse group is the biggest cause of conflict. Not being properly educated and careful in word choice could possibly result in coming across as insensitive, rude, or hateful to a co-worker. This miscommunication will more than likely create conflict and animosity between the people or groups of people involved, which will affect their job performance and may end in disciplinary action up to possible loss of employment. The point of diversity training is to prevent this type of miscommunication from happening, and keeping all employees happy, and working well together. What is your experience with workplace culture? Could there be, or could there have been, more inclusion? When I was working as a Service and Parts Director in a large automobile dealership I had a couple of employees who were from Africa, and were devout Muslims. As part of their religion they would lay down rugs on the floor and pray to their God several times a day. This act of faith upset many of the other employees and caused animosity between them. This had been going on before I started working there, and when I took the department over I realized that this was a major problem that I had to correct. I realized that both groups of employees were very talented and important and that not only did I need all of them, but I also needed them to get along and work together. Through mentoring, and diversity training I was able to open the minds of the employees who disliked the Muslim faith. Within a month of starting this mentoring and training both groups started working well together and even became good friends. Thinking About Diversity and Inclusion Thinking About Diversity and Inclusion SOC/315 October 10, 2011 Michelle Curtain Thinking About Diversity and Inclusion What are the dimensions of cultural diversity? Identify and briefly explain the dimensions by referencing both textbooks. Diversity can be defined as â€Å"the ways in which people differ that may affect their organizational experience in terms of performance, motivation, communication, and inclusion† (Harvey/Allard, 2009). These differences and similarities are broken-down into two dimensions. Primary dimensions are considered to be more fixed, visible, and relevant to an individual’s identity. Secondary dimensions are considered to be more fluid, and less central to one’s social identity† (Harvey/Allard, 2009). Primary dimensions of cultural diversity can include age, mental/physical abilities, ethnic heritage, gender, sexual orientation, and race. Secondary dimensions of cultural diversity can comprise of one’s geographic locatio n, family status, income, religion, and language among many other characteristics. Secondary dimensions are determined more by choice and are less visible.Another dimension is indentifying people and placing them into minority groups based on race, ethnicity, religion, and gender. â€Å"A minority group is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than do the members of a dominant or majority group. A subordinate group is characterized by â€Å"unequal treatment, distinguishing physical or cultural traits, involuntary membership, awareness of subordination, and in-group marriage† (Schaefer, 2011). With what ethnic, cultural, or other groups do you identify? Describe what members of your social circle have in common.To describe myself I am a white, 35 year old male. This is a very large group I fallen into, however even with these similarities I have with other members one may see myself not part of this group based on my differences. I believe due to my background of growing up in West Virginia, I associate more often with people from the same area of that country. A large portion of my friends I met in Arizona are from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. We seem to all share the same perspectives on life and feel as if we have known each all of our life due to sharing the same culture.I would also describe myself as indentifying with people that share the same taste in music as I. A description often heard is a â€Å"head†, as in Deadhead or Phishhead, for people that like the music from bands such as the Grateful Dead or Phish. The majority of the people that listen to this genre of music religiously follow the bands to numerous cities across the country to see multiple shows. What is the difference between diversity and inclusion? Diversity represents groups of people containing different characteristics such as skin color/race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age, and citizenship.How ever, inclusion allows people to be included in these groups so one can be valued based on one’s skills, distinctive traits, and point of view. â€Å"Leveraging diversity requires a culture of inclusion to support it† (Harvey/Allard, 2009). Inclusion ensures people can work as a team and be themselves. By doing so, everyone works well with one another and can see the benefit of having different characteristics on the team. â€Å"Inclusion is engaging the uniqueness of the talents, beliefs, backgrounds, capabilities, and ways of living of individuals and groups when joined in a common endeavor† (Institute for Inclusion, 2010).While being diverse is important to everyone, the available benefits are not automatically seen until inclusion is put into play. Diversity and inclusion when combined can result in more effective decision making and greater innovation by everyone involved. What is the importance of workplace diversity training? Workplace diversity training is vital for any business in order to become and continue to be successful. A business can receive priceless benefits by incorporating diversity training in the workplace. Such benefits include retaining more quality employees, a decrease in workplace incidences and increased team and individual morale.These benefits can be achieved by teaching employees how to identify and resolve issues regarding stereotyping in the workplace before it can get out of hand. Communication and listening are important factors as well and without them, one could see an increase with workplace issues such as discrimination or harassment lawsuits. Workplace diversity training allows one to be them self and be accepted in order to build strong, long lasting working relationships so everyone can benefit. By continuing workplace diversity training a business will ensure their employees will maintain growth and increase production.Also, by having this ongoing training the business can ensure all new employee s will work well with current employees. What is your experience with workplace culture? Could there be, or could there have been, more inclusion? â€Å"Culture is the environment that surrounds you at work all of the time. Culture is a powerful element that shapes your work enjoyment, your work relationships, and your work processes† (Heathfield, 2011). My company makes is a priority to have a good workplace culture throughout the entire business. My workplace culture is very diverse by having a wide variety of people from different backgrounds.Very few people that work for the company are actually from Arizona. By having this diverse culture within the workplace, the employees are able to share their experiences in order to better themselves and the organization. These differences also enable the company to relate to customers with same backgrounds as the employees. When that connection is made, the employee can relate to the customer’s needs or desires by relating p ast experiences to understand where one is coming from. I believe my workplace culture uses inclusion very often and reasonably well. As employees, we are all divided up into teams.Each team member learns from one another by seeing other’s point of view in a way that was never seen before. Reference Harvey, C. P. , and Allard, M. J. (2009). Understanding and managing diversity (4th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Heathfield, S. (2011). Culture: Your Environment for People at Work. Retrieved from http://humanresources. about. com/od/organizationalculture/a/culture. htm Institute for Inclusion. (2010). Implementing Inclusion. Retrieved from http://www. instituteforinclusion. org/ Schaefer, R. T. (2011). Racial and ethnic groups (12th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Motivation Case Essay

Motivation – is the process encouraging people to work. There are many different aspects of the theory of motivation, and they are: 1. Historically, the early views on motivation to work, such as the policy of â€Å"carrot and stick†. The adherents of this view think that man is by nature lazy, sly, selfish, wants to give less and get more, hence there is a need to constantly force him to work and systematically encouraged to achieve high results. 2. Content theories of motivation (as an incentive to work discusses the inner satisfaction of man, his needs). 3. Procedural theories of motivation (motivation occurs during labor process). Let us consider each of the theories. The content theories of motivation include: †¢ A. Maslow’s theory; †¢ K. Alderfer’s theory; †¢ D. McClelland theory; †¢ F. Hertzberg’s theory; A Maslow (1908-1970) provides the following hierarchy that makes a need for person to work. And Maslow (1908-1970) offers the following hierarchy inducing the person requirements to work: †¢ Physiological needs (hunger, thirst) †¢ Needs for safety, stability and confidence in the future †¢ Needs for love, participation, communication †¢ Needs for recognition and self-confirmation †¢ Needs for self-actualization A. Maslow assumed that needs for this hierarchy arise gradually. Satisfying primary requirements, the person gradually becomes more motivated. People not simply satisfy one need for another, but move up, changing the importance for these or those needs. Self-actualization — is the highest degree of motivating the person; his desire and strong-willed actions. Self actualization — means to become a person that individual wants to be, reach the maximum level of realization that potentially available. The problem is that: †¢ The person often doesn’t know about the abilities, mission or talent †¢ The person knows about the abilities, but doesn’t want to develop them into work. (The will is weak) †¢ The person knows about the abilities, but can’t develop them into work for a number of reasons (material, physical, etc.) According to A. Maslow, the highest level of motivation can reach only about 1% of all people. According to K. Alderfer’s theory of need the person can be combined in three separate groups: †¢ Needs for existence (safety, physiological) †¢ Needs for communication (in belongings to any group and participation in any business, aspiration to be the family member, to have friends, colleagues, etc.) †¢ The need for growth (need for recognition, self-assertion and self-improvement) These requirements are also hierarchical, but movement can go in both directions (unlike Maslow’s hierarchy) †¢ Up, if the previous need is satisfied. †¢ Down, if they don’t satisfied with higher level. In his theory of acquired needs D. McClelland proceeded from the fact that the needs are acquired under the influence of life events, experience, and training and includes: †¢ The need for achievement (the desire to self-set goals, more effectively than before, to reach them); †¢ The needs of complicity (the desire for friendly relations with others, communication, working with people); †¢ The need to dominate (the first group of individuals willing to rule for the sake of ruling, the second – to achieve goals). This system needs no strict hierarchy (as in previous theories) its elements have a mutual influence. Senior Manager, on one hand, should help to meet prevailing needs of employees and on the other hand – to promote development of those that are most needed for the labor process. For example, the need to achieve a goal of ruling with the development needs of complicity or achievements can achieve greater results. In theory, F.Herzberg points out the following two groups of factors: †¢ External or hygiene (or health factors) – wages, working conditions, status, mode, interpersonal relationships, the degree of control over the work; †¢ Motivating – growth opportunities, recognition, promotion, work. F. Herzberg concluded that the factors driving the growth of human dissatisfaction with their elimination does not necessarily lead to increased satisfaction, and vice versa. The transition from a lack of satisfaction is influenced by motivational factors and the transition from dissatisfaction with the absence dissatisfaction under the influence of external factors. Therefore, priority should be given to human dissatisfaction and then only with the help of motivating factors to ensure satisfaction. Manager’s attention only to external factors is ineffective. Procedural theories of motivation includes Vroom’s theory of expectancy, the theory of justice (equality) S. Adams, Porter-Lawler model, the theory of goal setting E. Locke’s, and concept of participatory governance. According to the theory expectations Vroom: Motivation = Expected results of the x x Expected remuneration for x The significance of the result of x (valence) †¢ Valence is positive, if the results are highly valued by the employee; †¢ Valence is negative, if the results are denied by the employee; †¢ Valence of zero, if the worker is indifferent to this result. Variables in the formula can be evaluated with points. The essence of the theory of justice (equality) Stacy Adams; People subjectively feel a fair reward for their work, their own and others compare the costs and rewards, so it is important to pay for the work to motivate employees and achieve smooth arise between negative feelings. S. Adams identified six possible human reactions to injustice. 1. Reducing self energy consumption (â€Å"I’m not going to do my best for this salary†). 2. Attempt to increase the salary for their work (requirements, blackmail, etc.). 3. Revaluation of its features (lower confidence). 4. Attempt to influence the organization or the head to change the payment or the load of other employees. 5. Selecting another object of comparison (â€Å"I do not want to be with them†). 6. Attempt to move to another department or another organization. Experienced manager should feel subordinator’s reactions and possibly smooth over the contradictions. Porter-Lawler model represents the synthesis of the theory of justice and the theory of expectations: [pic] In the model of Porter-Lawler work results are considered as a function of the external compensation (salary, the significance of payment assurance efforts and communication labor remuneration), internal reward (praise, promotion, etc.), awareness of their role in the labor process and abilities. If the size between employee’s external rewards and effort is clearly perceived by the individual communication, motivation system works completely; otherwise the employee is motivated in part with the results of the (second internal feedback) and receives only an internal reward for their labor. According to the theory of goal Edwin Locke’s motivation is determined by his goals and satisfaction with job performance. It is assumed that goal setting is a conscious process, which involves the future goals of man. The results of the individual will depend on: †¢ Complexity of task; †¢ Its features (clarity and certainty); †¢ Profitability (eligibility) it for the individual; †¢ A person’s readiness to make some effort to achieve goal (closer the goal, effort can be increased). Quality of work defined organizational factors and capable employees, which in turn affect the goals, and consequence of his motivation. Satisfaction or dissatisfaction with employee by interaction of two processes: †¢ Internal (individual assessment results in terms of correlating them with the goal); †¢ External (human evaluation by others). The disadvantages of this theory include: †¢ Poor uniformity (for uneducated people, such as clarity of purpose plays a big role, and the call for highly objective and its uncertainty leaves room for creativity); †¢ The situation is not clear when the target slave puts the head; †¢ The situation is not clear, when there is group work and the purpose of the group is placed in general; †¢ Promoting labor is not often aimed at a quick goal, and on the quality of the work task. In accordance with the concept of participatory management, employee motivation is determined by its interest in how its activities impact on the functioning of the organization, the desire to participate in the processes taking place in the organization. If an employee feels that he needs to the organization that he demanded it that between his initiative and reward, there is a direct relationship, the intensity of his work is significantly increased. Participative management is widespread in leading Japanese corporations: †¢ Staff makes decisions about the organization of work; †¢ Employees working independently take decisions; setting goals are carried out jointly with the head; †¢ Employees independently control the quality and quantity of output †¢ Employees involved in innovative activities (quality circles, task force committees, etc.) †¢ Employees independently form working groups.